Effect of Reducing Agents on the Growth of Magnetospirilla

Effect of Reducing Agents on the Growth of Magnetospirilla Shubhashri Chakraborthy, Pauline Shekina, Upasana Dey and Suthindhiran Krish Abstract: Magnetotactic Bacteria are a fascinating group of microorganisms. Magnetospirilla is a microaerophilic bacterium. The effect of reducing agents varies with the cell depending on the properties of the reagent. They also produce different redox potentials which force a substrate to follow specific metabolic pathway in order to change the product or rate of the reaction. So it is essential to study the effect of reducing agents on the growth of Magnetospirilla. Two strains of this bacterium, MSR-1 and RJS-1 were selected for the study. Reducing agents like Ascorbic Acid, Cysteine and Glutathione were prepared in various concentrations and the bacteria were cultured. The ideal concentration of the reducing agents required for the growth of these two strains was identified. Glutathione at the concentration 0.250mg/ml is found to be ideal for the growth of MSR-1 and Cysteine at the concentration of 0.250mg/ml is found to be ideal for the growth of RJS-1 strain of Magnetospirilla Keywords: Magnetotactic bacteria; Ascorbic Acid; Cysteine; Glutathione; Reducing agents. Introduction: Magnetotactic bacteria (orMTB) are a  polyphyletic  group of  bacteria that orient along themagnetic field lines of Earth’s magnetic field with the help of organelles called magnetosomes. Magnetosomes are iron crystals of magnetite or greigite. The movement of microorganisms in response to the magnetic characteristics of the environment is known as  magnetotaxis. Many efforts have been made to optimize the growth conditions of MTB.[4] Magnetospirilla are facultative anaerobic magnetic bacterium. Reducing agents can have very different effects on the microbial cells depending on the properties of the reagent and of the properties of the cell itself. Reducing agents can produce different redox potentials which might be force a substrate to follow a specific metabolic pathway in order to change the rate or product of the reaction.[6] Previous studies showed that changing the redox environment had a strong impact in the applications of Magnetospirilla. Therefore we studied the effect of different reducing agents at different concentrations on the growth of Magnetospirilla. Materials and Methods: Culturing the bacteria Two strains of Magnetospirilla, MSR-1 (DSMZ, Germany) and RJS-1(Marine Biotechnology Lab, VIT University) were grown in liquid Magnetic Spirillum Growth Medium (MSGM).[1] A stock of 500ml of the MSGM media was prepared without reducing agents and Resazurin. 7ml of the media were transferred in small vials and it was purged with nitrogen gas for 3 minutes to provide microaerophilic condition. The vials were sealed with butyl rubber septa and aluminium centre holed caps. These vials were autoclaved at 121 °C for 15 minutes. Stock solution of the reducing agents Ascorbic Acid, Cysteine, Glutathione and Sodium Sulfide (10mg/10ml) were prepared and filter sterilized. Heat sensitive materials such as vitamins were also filter sterilized. 70ÃŽ ¼l of filtered vitamin solution and 14ÃŽ ¼l of filtered ferric quinate solution were taken in sterile eppendorf tubes. Different concentrations of reducing agents (0.125mg/ml, 0.250mg/ml, 0.375mg/ml and 0.500mg/ml) were also taken in the eppendorf t ubes containing the vitamin and ferric quinate solutions. Using sterile needles and syringes these solutions were transferred into the vials. These vials were incubated at 37 °C in a shaker. Checking the growth of the bacteria The growth of the bacteria were observed using spectrophotometer. Optical Density (OD) was taken at 595nm in 24, 26, 29, 38, 44 and 48 hours of incubation. The values are plotted in graph to find the maximum growth rate. Results and Discussion: A graph was plotted against time in hours and the OD values taken for different concentrations of reducing agents. Figure 1. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (MSR-1) at various concentrations of Ascorbic Acid. The growth of MSR-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.500mg/ml of Ascorbic acid. Figure 2. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (MSR-1) at various concentrations of Cysteine. The growth of MSR-1 was maximum at the concentrations 0.250mg/ml of Cysteine. Figure 3. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (MSR-1) at various concentrations of Glutathione. The growth of MSR-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.250mg/ml of Glutathione. Figure 4. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (MSR-1) at various concentrations of Sodium Sulfide. The growth of MSR-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.500mg/ml of Sodium Sulfide. Comparing all the OD values the growth of MSR-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.250mg/ml of Glutathione. Figure 5. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (RJS-1) at various concentrations of Ascorbic Acid. The growth of RJS-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.375mg/ml of Ascorbic Acid. Figure 6. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (RJS-1) at various concentrations of Cysteine. The growth of RJS-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.250mg/ml of Cysteine. Figure 7. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (RJS-1) at various concentrations of Glutathione. The growth of RJS-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.375mg/ml of Glutathione. Figure 8. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (RJS-1) at various concentrations of Sodium Sulfide. The growth of RJS-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.500mg/ml of Sodium Sulfide. Comparing all the OD values the growth of RJS-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.250mg/ml of Cysteine. Our studies showed that optimal concentration of reducing agents showed increased growth. When the concentration of reducing agents is increased further it inhibits the growth because of toxicity. Optimal concentration of reducing agents reduces the lag time and enhances the cell density. Conclusion: There are many other reducing agents which are used for growing various species of Magnetotactic bacteria. From the results we got it is suggested that Glutathione at the concentration 0.250mg/ml is ideal for the growth of MSR-1 and Cysteine at the concentration of 0.250mg/ml is ideal for the growth of RJS-1 strain of Magnetospirilla. References: [1] Blakemore R P, Maratea D and Wolfe R S, â€Å"Isolation and Pure Culture of a Freshwater Magnetic Spirillum in Chemically Defined Medium,† Journal of Bacteriology, 140(2), 720, 1979. [2] Cody Nash, â€Å"Mechanisms and Evolution of Magnetotactic Bacteria,† 2008. [3] Damien Faivre and Dirk Schuler, â€Å"Magnetotactic Bacteria and Magnetosomes,† Chem.Rev, 108, 4875–4898, 2008. [4] John F. Stolz, â€Å" Magnetosomes,† Journal of General Microbiology, 139, 1663-1670,1993. [5] Tadashi Matsunaga and Toshifumi Sakaguchi, â€Å" Molecular Mechanism of Magnet Formation in Bacteria,† Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 90, 1-13, 2000. [6] Xiangqian Li, Qilei Wang and Yemin Xue, â€Å" On the Change in Bacterial Growth and Magnetosome Formation for Magnetosprillum Sp. Strain AMB-1 Under Different Concentrations of Reducing Agents,† Jorunal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology,13, 1392-1398, 2013. [7] Yoshihito Uchino and Suzuki Ken-Ichiro, â€Å"A Simple Preparation of Liquid Media for the Cultivation of Strict Anaerobes,† Journal of Petroleum and Environmental Biotechnology, S3-001, 2157-2160, 2011.

The Caste System of India

The Caste System of India The album of the modern world is portrayed by class and caste systems, the mere reflections of social inequality in human society. Class and caste are the form of the social stratification. The division of society into classes or strata, which form a hierarchy of prestige and power, is an universal feature of social structure. In this paper mainly focus on the basic concept of caste and class of society and in Indian context the changing trend of the caste system. What is Caste: Caste is the name of an ancient social institution that has been part of Indian history and culture for thousands of years. Wikipedia states that, A caste is a combined social system of, endogamy, culture, social class, and political power. Any of the hereditary, endogamous social classes or subclasses of traditional Hindu society, stratified according to Hindu ritual purity, especially the Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra castes. The nature and function of the caste system: The statutory commission report in 1930 stated about the nature and function of the caste in India as, Every Hindu necessarily belongs to the caste of his parents and in that caste he inevitably remains. No accumulation of wealth and no exercise of talents can alter his caste status and marriage outside his caste is prohibited or severely discouraged. Renowned scholar Paul H. Landis has remarked as, No ambitious young Indian of a lower class can ever hope to be a Brahmin. Here the class differences are strong that the lowest class, the untouchables are not allowed even to touch the garments of the highest or Brahmin class. They (untouchables) die in the hope that they will be reborn into a better class. From the various statements it becomes clear that caste continue to be an overpowering influence in the social, economical and political life of the country. The Indian village system is tied up with caste hierarchy. Origin of caste: some views Caste or more precisely varna for which the former a Portuguese synonyms, has come into wide use in comparative literature in recent years. It has been an invariable dimension of the social evolution in india during the last 3500years. During the Rigvedic period the Aryan community had started splitting into classes Brahma, Kashata and visa. It is only in one of the later hymns purushasuktha that a reference has been made to the four classes of Indian society. The names of the four classes were given in the sukta as Brahma, Rajanya, vaisya and sudra. The earlier division into these groups or section or varnas represented division of labour and division of social product. The original in habitants, portrayed as blackish people were called as Dasas by the Aryans, the invaders. These Dasas were over powered by the Aryans and when the conquered class were transformed into a service class, new relations of production came into being. The Dasas were known as the Sudras the fifth caste in the Aryan fold of the Indian society. Phules theory of the caste system was that it was created by the Aryans or Iranis Bhats or Brahmins. Before the coming of Irani Brahmins, Indian society was a casteless or classless agricultural community. The Grammarian Patanjali (Bc.200) commenting on panninis rule classified the countries of his times as Abrahmaniko Desah'(non-Brahmin countries) and vrshalak desah'(Brahmin countries). Dr. B.R. Ambedkar attempted to prove that the sudras originally constituted the solar Kshatriya caste of the vedic Aryan society, but that since the Brahmins refused to perform upanayana for them they were pushed down to the fourth caste. Definitions of caste: The word caste is derived from the Spanish word caste, meaning breed, race, strain or heredity. The Portuguese, when they came to India used the term to identify the caste divisions. In the words of Madan and Majumdar, caste is a closed group. To C.H Cooley, When a class is some what strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste. The most commonly cited defining features of caste are the following: Caste is determined by birth a child is born into the caste of its parents. Caste is never a matter of choice. One can never change ones caste, leave it, or choose not to join it, although there are instances where a person may be expelled from their caste. Membership in a caste involves strict rules about marriage. Caste groups are endogamous, i.e. marriage is restricted to members of the group. Caste membership also involves rules about food and food-sharing. What kinds of food may or may not be eaten is prescribed and who one may share food with is also specified. Caste involves a system consisting of many castes arranged in a hierarchy of rank and status. In theory, every person has a caste, and every caste has a specified place in the hierarchy of all castes. While the hierarchical position of many castes, particularly in the middle ranks, may vary from region to region, there is always a hierarchy. Castes also involve sub-divisions within themselves, i.e., castes almost always have sub-castes and sometimes sub-castes may also have sub-sub-castes. This is referred to as a segmental organisation. Castes were traditionally linked to occupations. A person born into a caste could only practice the occupation associated with that caste, so that occupations were hereditary, i.e. passed on from generation to generation. On the other hand, a particular occupation could only be pursued by the caste associated with it -members of other castes could not enter the occupation. Social structure and cultural aspects of the caste system: The nature of caste system in India can be studied as a social structural system and as a cultural system representing the unique feature of Indian cultures: Social Structural Aspects: The caste system is a hierarchy of values in terms of the concept of purity and impurity. It is organized as a characteristic hereditary division of labour. It is committed to organic coordination with the larger communities. Dumont, the French sociologist used the term homo-hierarchy meant for the minority opposition and mutual repulsion in the inter-caste relationship. There is a lot of cooperation especially in the socio-religious lines between various castes. Cultural Aspects : The cultural or symbolic system of caste has the following important things: A hierarchy of values in terms of the concept of purity and impurity. Hereditary transmission of psychological traits with in caste groups. The concepts of karma and punarjanma giving ones attitudes and ways of life. Commitment to caste occupation of caste style. Tolerance of different styles of life of other castes. What is Social Class? A social class may be defined as a stratum of people of similar position in the social status continuum. The social position of the George is not the same as that of the college president; a student will not greet them in exactly the same manner. Most of us are deferential towards those whose social position we believe to be above our and are condescending to those whom we consider socially below us. The members of a social class view one another as social equals, while holding themselves to be socially superior to some and socially inferior to others. The members of a particular social class often have about the same amount of money, but what is more important is that they have much the same attitudes, values and ways of life. Social class is a very important from a social stratification. Class system is universal phenomena. Nowadays classes are in increasing and new classes are coming into being in various parts of the world. Class system in a society in determined by economic cond itions, occupational conditions, abilities, hereditary factors, educational factors etc. Every society is gradated into various social classes and each class has its status in society. To understand more about social class one has to depend on some definitions given by social scientists. Definition of Social Class: T.H. Marshal defined by stating that A system or structure of social class involves first, a hierarchy of status groups and secondly the recognition of the superior-inferior stratification and finally some degree of permanency of the structure. In the word of Ogburn and Nimcoff, By a social class we mean one or two or more broad groups of individuals who are ranked by the members of the community in socially superior and inferior positions. To Lapiere, a social class is a culturally defined group that is accorded a particular position or status within the population as a whole. Characteristics of the Class: Social class is a very important from of social stratification in the modern times. Following are the main features of class: Hierarchy of status groups: In the class system , everyone has its own status. In other words social class is a status group. Based on their features and resources, some people occupy high status, some middle status and yet some others rest at the lowest position. In modern complex society each class feels that they belong to a specific group. Class- Consciousness: In the class system every social class develops class consciousness and the status consciousness results in psychological separation. Open system: Social class system is an open one in society. The social position of one individual is based up on the factors like his profession, personal merits, dignity and wealth. The more an individual develops his abilities so as to be useful to society better he is placed in the social hierarchy. In the class system a person can move upward or downward, depending upon his personal attainments, merits and demerits, abilities and disabilities. Objective Factors: Economic condition, profession position, education, health, race etc are objectives factors of the social class system. Class consciousness resulting from the feeling of superiority and inferiority are to the called as subjective factors. When these subjective factors integrated into the objective ones, class organization occurs. Class is not only an economic division: Karl Max and Engels have the opinion that class division and economic inequalities alone lead to class difference. According to them social classes originate only from economic conditions. But our sociologists like Mac Iver mention that economic factor is only one of the factors for the origin of class system. Class is not only an occupational division: It is wrong to consider social class is an occupational division. It is restricting the scope of the social class. The criteria of high and low, superior and inferior cannot be specifically applied to professions. Social mobility: Class system involves greater scope for social mobility. According to A. Sorokin, social mobility is of two kinds; Horizontal and Vertical. Horizontal social mobility is movement from one social status to another social status of the same level. E.g. An engineer who is working in the Ford motor company goes to general motors co. as an engineers of the same grade. Vertical social mobility is the movement upward or downward e.g. A Director moves down to the position of an Assistant Director. Social Class: Marxian View The basic frame work for the dynamic of social change was laid down by Karl Marx through his materialistic interpretation of history and theory of class struggle. Opening the first chapter of their communist manifesto, Karl Marx and Engels stated: The history of all hitherto existing society(i.e. all written history) is the history of class struggle. Marxian theory, materialistic and economically oriented, views class attitudes and class consciousness as fundamentally a reflection of economic conditions. Under the Marxian concept there are only two classes namely petty Bourgeois capitalists and the proletariats or the working class. Marxs distribution of the classes was mainly on economic basis that had comes as a subject of criticisms to sociologist like Mac Iver. Karl Marx conceived the relation between these two classes essentially based on the means of production, followed by the exploitation of the Bourgeoisie class up on the working class. Regarding classes and their relation with each other Marx has set three assumption in selected correspondence. Classes are bound up with particular historical phases in the development of production. Classes are bound to lead a struggle between two classes namely Petty Bourgeois capitalists and the working class. The class struggle between those two classes necessarily leads to the dictatorship of the proletariats by over throwing the ruling capitalist from power. Marx and Engles have described classes as economic conflict groups that are divided on the basis of the possession of the various instruments of production. Thus it is believed that an industrial society is connected with two classes- petty Bourgeoisie capitalist and proletarate workers. Before the industrial revolution there were only two classes, Landlords and the Agriculturists. Class system in India: In village India, where nearly 74 percent of the population resides, caste and class affiliations overlap. According to anthropologist Miriam Sharma, Large landholders who employ hired labour are overwhelmingly from the upper castes, while the agricultural workers themselves come from the ranks of the lowestpredominantly Untouchablecastes. She also points out that household-labor-using proprietors come from the ranks of the middle agricultural castes. Distribution of other resources and access to political control follow the same pattern of caste-cum-class distinctions. Although this congruence is strong, there is a tendency for class formation to occur despite the importance of caste, especially in the cities, but also in rural areas. In an analysis of class formation in India, anthropologist Harold A. Gould points out that a three-level system of stratification is taking shape across rural India. He calls the three levels Forward Classes (higher castes), Backward Classes (middle and lower castes), and Harijans (very low castes). Members of these groups share common concerns because they stand in approximately the same relationship to land and productionthat is, they are large-scale farmers, small-scale farmers, and landless laborers. Some of these groups are drawing together within regions across caste lines in order to work for political power and access to desirable resources. For example, since the late 1960s, some of the middle-ranking cultivating castes of northern India have increasingly cooperated in the political arena in order to advance their common agrarian and market-oriented interests. Their efforts have been spurred by competition with higher-caste landed elites. In cities other groups have vested interests that crosscut caste boundaries, suggesting the possibility of forming classes in the future. These groups include prosperous industrialists and entrepreneurs, who have made successful efforts to push the central government toward a pro-business stance; bureaucrats, who depend upon higher education rather than land to preserve their positions as civil servants; political officeholders, who enjoy good salaries and perquisites of all kinds; and the military, who constitute one of the most powerful armed forces in the developing world. Economically far below such groups are members of the menial underclass, which is taking shape in both villages and urban areas. As the privileged elites move ahead, low-ranking menial workers remain economically insecure. Were they to join together to mobilize politically across lines of class and religion in recognition of their common interests, Gould observes, they might find power in their sheer numbers. Indias rapidly expanding economy has provided the basis for a fundamental changethe emergence of what eminent journalist Suman Dubey calls a new vanguard increasingly dictating Indias political and economic direction. This group is Indias new middle classmobile, driven, consumer-oriented, and, to some extent, forward-looking. Hard to define precisely, it is not a single stratum of society, but straddles town and countryside, making its voice heard everywhere. It encompasses prosperous farmers, white-collar workers, business people, military personnel, and myriad others, all actively working toward a prosperous life. Ownership of cars, televisions, and other consumer goods, reasonable earnings, substantial savings, and educated children (often fluent in English) typify this diverse group. Many have ties to kinsmen living abroad who have done very well. The new middle class is booming, at least partially in response to a doubling of the salaries of some 4 million central government employees in 1986, followed by similar increases for state and district officers. Unprecedented liberalization and opening up of the economy in the 1980s and 1990s have been part of the picture. There is no single set of criteria defining the middle class, and estimates of its numbers vary widely. The mid-range of figures presented in a 1992 survey article by analyst Suman Dubey is approximately 150 to 175 millionsome 20 percent of the populationalthough other observers suggest alternative figures. The middle class appears to be increasing rapidly. Once primarily urban and largely Hindu, the phenomenon of the consuming middle class is burgeoning among Muslims and prosperous villagers as well. According to V.A. Pai Panandikar, director of the Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, cited by Dubey, by the end of the twentieth century 30 percentsome 300 millionof Indias population will be middle class. The middle class is bracketed on either side by the upper and lower echelons. Members of the upper classaround 1 percent of the populationare owners of large properties, members of exclusive clubs, and vacationers in foreign lands, and include industrialists, former maharajas, and top executives. Below the middle class is perhaps a third of the populationordinary farmers, tradespeople, artisans, and workers. At the bottom of the economic scale are the poorestimated at 320 million, some 45 percent of the population in 1988who live in inadequate homes without adequate food, work for pittances, have undereducated and often sickly children, and are the victims of numerous social inequities. Changing Pattern of Caste system in India: Despite many problems, the caste system has operated successfully for centuries, providing goods and services to Indias many millions of citizens. The system continues to operate, but changes are occurring. Indias constitution guarantees basic rights to all its citizens, including the right to equality and equal protection before the law. The practice of untouchability, as well as discrimination on the basis of caste, race, sex, or religion, has been legally abolished. All citizens have the right to vote, and political competition is lively. Voters from every stratum of society have formed interest groups, overlapping and crosscutting castes, creating an evolving new style of integrating Indian society. Castes themselves, however, far from being abolished, have certain rights under Indian law. As described by anthropologist Owen M. Lynch and other scholars, in the expanding political arena caste groups are becoming more politicized and forced to compete with other interest groups for social and economic benefits. In the growing cities, traditional intercaste interdependencies are negligible. Independent India has built on earlier British efforts to remedy problems suffered by Dalits by granting them some benefits of protective discrimination. Scheduled Castes are entitled to reserved electoral offices, reserved jobs in central and state governments, and special educational benefits. The constitution mandates that one-seventh of state and national legislative seats be reserved for members of Scheduled Castes in order to guarantee their voice in government. Reserving seats has proven useful because few, if any, Scheduled Caste candidates have ever been elected in non-reserved constituencies. Educationally, Dalit students have benefited from scholarships, and Scheduled Caste literacy increased (from 10.3 percent in 1961 to 21.4 percent in 1981, the last year for which such figures are available), although not as rapidly as among the general population. Improved access to education has resulted in the emergence of a substantial group of educated Dalits able to take up white-collar occupations and fight for their rights. There has been tremendous resistance among non-Dalits to this protective discrimination for the Scheduled Castes, who constitute some 16 percent of the total population, and efforts have been made to provide similar advantages to the so-called Backward Classes (see Glossary), who constitute an estimated 52 percent of the population. In August 1990, Prime Minister Vishwanath Pratap (V.P.) Singh announced his intention to enforce the recommendations of the Backward Classes Commission (Mandal Commissionsee Glossary), issued in December 1980 and largely ignored for a decade. The report, which urged special advantages for obtaining civil service positions and admission to higher education for the Backward Classes, resulted in riots and self-immolations and contributed to the fall of the prime minister. The upper castes have been particularly adamant against these policies because unemployment is a major problem in India, and many feel that they are being unjustly excluded from posts for w hich they are better qualified than lower-caste applicants. As an act of protest, many Dalits have rejected Hinduism with its rigid ranking system. Following the example of their revered leader, Dr. Ambedkar, who converted to Buddhism four years before his death in 1956, millions of Dalits have embraced the faith of the Buddha. Over the past few centuries, many Dalits have also converted to Christianity and have often by this means raised their socioeconomic status. However, Christians of Dalit origin still often suffer from discrimination by Christiansand othersof higher caste backgrounds. Despite improvements in some aspects of Dalit status, 90 percent of them live in rural areas in the mid-1990s, where an increasing proportionmore than 50 percentwork as landless agricultural laborers. State and national governments have attempted to secure more just distribution of land by creating land ceilings and abolishing absentee landlordism, but evasive tactics by landowners have successfully prevented more than minimal redistribution of land to tenant farmers and laborers. In contemporary India, field hands face increased competition from tractors and harvesting machines. Similarly, artisans are being challenged by expanding commercial markets in mass-produced factory goods, undercutting traditional mutual obligations between patrons and clients. The spread of the Green Revolution has tended to increase the gap between the prosperous and the poormost of whom are low-caste. The growth of urbanization (an estimated 26 percent of the population now lives in cities) is having a far-reaching effect on caste practices, not only in cities but in villages. Among anonymous crowds in urban public spaces and on public transportation, caste affiliations are unknown, and observance of purity and pollution rules is negligible. Distinctive caste costumes have all but vanished, and low-caste names have been modified, although castes remain endogamous, and access to employment often occurs through intracaste connections. Restrictions on interactions with other castes are becoming more relaxed, and, at the same time, observance of other pollution rules is decliningespecially those concerning birth, death, and menstruation. Several growing Hindu sects draw members from many castes and regions, and communication between cities and villages is expanding dramatically. Kin in town and country visit one another frequently, and television programs available to huge numbers of villagers vividly portray new lifestyles. As new occupations open up in urban areas, the correlation of caste with occupation is declining. Caste associations have expanded their areas of concern beyond traditional elite emulation and local politics into the wider political arenas of state and national politics. Finding power in numbers within Indias democratic system, caste groups are pulling together closely allied subcastes in their quest for political influence. In efforts to solidify caste bonds, some caste associations have organized marriage fairs where families can make matches for their children. Traditional hierarchical concerns are being minimized in favor of strengthening horizontal unity. Thus, while pollution observances are declining, caste consciousness is not. Education and election to political office have advanced the status of many Dalits, but the overall picture remains one of great inequity. In recent decades, Dalit anger has been expressed in writings, demonstrations, strikes, and the activities of such groups as the Dalit Panthers, a radical political party demanding revolutionary change. A wider Dalit movement, including political parties, educational activities, self-help centers, and labor organizations, has spread to many areas of the country. In a 1982 Dalit publication, Dilip Hiro wrote, It is one of the great modern Indian tragedies and dangers that even well meaning Indians still find it so difficult to accept Untouchable mobility as being legitimate in fact as well as in theory. . . . Still, against all odds, a small intelligentsia has worked for many years toward the goal of freeing India of caste consciousness. Factor contributing to caste change: The main factors responsible for the changes of caste system are: Modern education: Modern education is one of the major factors for weakening of the caste. It has gone to make negative impacts upon casteism. As modern education is deeply ingrained into the values such as liberty, equality and fraternity, it gives no place for hoary social evils and practices like casteism. Education also encouraged inter-caste marriage. The feeling of untouchability and prejudices are being gradually eliminated from the mind of the children of all caste. Industrialization: With the advent of industrialization people of all castes were forced to find out employment in factories in big cities. In the industrial centers members of different castes came into mutual contact, made harmonious relationship with other and forgot the caste barriers. Urbanization: Industrialization, transportation and widened communication are the main facors responsible to decrease the sentiment of the caste from the people to a greater extent. Higher caste members who moved to urban areas for pursuing employment found it difficult to retain their caste ideas and practice. Significance of wealth: In the past power of money was not much dominating factor in the society. Today wealth is replacing caste as the basis of social prestige. In other words money has become a deciding factor for influencing human life at present. Rise of Nationalism: Nationalism bound up with the concept of universal brotherhood has opened up new volumes in inter-caste relations. It seems to have helped to a considerable extent in shortening the prejudices of casteism from the mind of people in rural areas. Effect of social reforms: Social reform movement had also gone to a wider extent in diminishing caste prejudices from the upper caste minds. Social reformer like Babasaheb, Ambedkar, Balgangadhar Tilak, Ranade had done a lot for removing caste distinction and prejudice from the mind of Indians. Conclusion: The strength of caste themselves, of the individuals attachment to his own caste, it may be claimed that the traditional caste system has been profoundly altered. In that system each individual caste had its ascribed place and co-operated with each other castes in a traditional economy and in ritual. No doubt there was always some competition between castes and there were changes in position in the hierarchy of prestige; but there was no generalized competition. It is quit otherwise with the modern caste associations, which exist in order to compete for wealth, educational opportunities and social prestige in a much more open society. The class interests and demands of the toiling people, the poor and the oppressed, has largely been expressed in the form of caste politics. Articulated within the structures of Indias democracy, this caste based politics has succeeded in providing significant relief to the lower castes, who form the overwhelming majority of Indias toiling masses. Next week, this column will look at the consequences of lower caste politics in contemporary India.

Is America Bashing warranted? :: essays research papers

America bashing is not warranted in the world, it is based on loose facts that have been manipulated. America is blamed as the source of all the world’s problems because it is seen as the most prominent country. Through the analysis of two works- Richard Neville’s Oh Say, Can’t You See? and Chris Middencorp’s God Diss America- this paper will prove this to be the case. Richard Neville begins his argument for America bashing by citing George W. Bush’s decision to renounce the Kyoto treaty as an example of the poor decision making the American government has made that hurts not only itself, but the entire world. In his article Neville seeks to denounce several myths that America still possesses. He starts by arguing against the myth that America is the land of the free. He states that America in actuality has the highest percentage of its citizens imprisoned over any other country. In fact, a quarter of the world’s prisoners are incarcerated in the United States. He goes on to diminish the idea that happiness is honored. He argues that if this is true, how can the country exhibit one of the highest rates of clinical depression. He cites Eli Lilly as saying â€Å"Prozac changed everything, and that’s just the beginning? America promotes global expansion and human rights is his next target. Neville points out that the United State s spurned vital treaties on war crimes, as well as land mines, the prohibition of juvenile executions, arms controls, test bans and the Rights of Children. Neville then goes on to discuss the myth that America is the land of the free. If this is true, Neville argues, then it is unjust that the richest one percent of the population have more wealth then the lowest ninety percent, the largest inequality in the world. He points out that over forty million Americans are without health insurance, a number which increases every year. While these facts do not shed a kind light on America, Neville does point out some of its brighter aspects. Neville goes on to discuss some of the good and admittedly â€Å"irresistible?parts of American culture. Austin Powers, jazz, and the first amendment are among these. He even admits to enjoying McDonald’s on occasion although he is quick to assert that they are destroying the world’s crop varieties by making every country they have a store in grow their standard potato- Idaho Russer.

Portrait of a Lady - From Novel to Film Essay -- Movie Film Essays

Portrait of a Lady - From Novel to Film Jane Campion's most recent film, Portrait of a Lady (1996), offers a distinct departure from her previous work, The Piano (1993), with which some critics have found fault. In her 1998 article, for example, while commending Campion for introducing two characters able to renounce the gender warfare that characterizes Western culture, Diane Long Hoeveler criticizes Campion for celebrating marriage, the idea that women cannot survive without a man at the center of their lives (Hoeveler 110, 114). Second, she asserts that while Campion toys with feminist issues and images, Piano is Aromantic and escapist, with Ada's decision to be reborn with Baines a step hardly worthy of the serious feminist issues that Campion seems to be raising in the film (Hoeveler 114). Finally, she points out that Campion is heavily indebted to a 1920s work, The Story of a New Zealand River by Jane Mander. Partly as a consequence of not acknowledging this debt, the film has conflicting sources, Campion's rat her permissive twentieth century script about adultery, superimposed on Mander's original, in which the Victorian heroine is not united sexually with her lover until after her husband's death. Enacting a basically contemporary drama in anachronistic costumes and setting, Hoeveler says the film contains gaps, ...fissures we sense while viewing it (Hoeveler 114). For example, how likely is it, she asks, that an 1850s heroine would conduct an adulterous affair? In (Re)Visioning the Gothic (1998), Cyndy Hendershot echoes this view, calling Baines, the film's nontraditional male (Harvey Keitel), a deus ex machina, a fairy-tale character, an imaginary resolution to two real problems, on the one hand the castratio... ..., Campion breaks his barrier of reticence about sex, money and behavior and delivers the facts straight. Hardly faithful to him as she is, though, Jane Campion's work is itself made possible by the original master, Henry James. Sources Cited Bluestone, George. Novels Into Film. California UP, 1971. Campion, Jane. The Piano. London: Bloomsbury, 1993. Dapkus, Jeanne R. Sloughing off the Burdens. Film Literature Quarterly 25.3 (1997): 177-187. Giannetti, Louis. Understanding Movies. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1972. Hendershot, Cyndy. (Re)Visioning the Gothic. Film Literature Quarterly 26.2 (1998): 97-108. Hoeveler, Diane Long. Silence, Sex, and Feminism. Film Literature Quarterly 26.2 (1998): 109-116. James, Henry. The Portrait of a Lady. 1881. New York: Random House, 1996. Jones, Laura. The Portrait of a Lady. New York: Penguin, 1996.

Challenges for Building Stable Democracies Essay -- Essays Papers

Challenges for Building Stable Democracies It has been stated that the Bush administration’s goal is to have America spread democracy around the world. This may sound radical, but it is really just what our foreign policy has been for the past 60 or so years. The only difference is that now there is no evil communist empire, the USSR has fallen. America has a new ideological enemy the theocracies and oppressive regimes around the world especially Africa and the Middle East, the places that breed terrorists. The Bush administration and most people feel that the best way to stop Terrorism is to wipe out its source. However, in building democracies in the Middle East and other parts in the world there are some extreme difficulties in the process. The first step to building any strong democracy in a country with an autocratic regime is to topple that old regime. This can often be very difficult, because these autocratic regimes usually have quite a strong military and police force to oppose your attempted regime change. America really has little problems with this, because our army is the most powerful in the world. Despite our ease at defeating most armies it we cannot overlook this step in the process of building democracies. The next step is occupying the country; this can often take even more troops then the invasion. This is because often after a state is defeated there are still rebel guerilla groups that can cause a bit of a problem. There is also the fact that it takes a long time to rebuild a country. The two countries we have successfully rebuilt as democracies, Japan and Germany, had no guerillas and it took us five years of occupation to get them where they needed to be. Any invasion force has to have ... ...aucratic gridlock that results in extreme inefficiency. Despite these challenges the United States and others have a good chance to spread Democracy, but it will not be easy. To make America’s current plan work we need to be dedicated to this goal, be willing to deal with hardships, have the compassion to get these people out from under oppressive regimes, and to not pull out of the states at the first sign of trouble. Works Cited 1. David Ingersoll, Richard Matthews, and Andrew Davison, â€Å"Theopolitics and Islamism,† in The Philosophic Roots of Modern Ideology, third edition (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001) 2. Nicolo Machiavelli, The Prince, found on http://www.constitution.org/mac/prince00.htm, Ch. 19 3. Sheri Berman, â€Å"Civil Society and the Collapse of the Weimar Republic,† World Politic 49 (April 1997)

The Limitations of the Freedom of Speech

Does the First Amendment mean anyone can say anything at any time? No. The Supreme Court has rejected an interpretation of speech without limits. Because the First Amendment has such strong language, we begin with the presumption that speech is protected. Over the years, the courts have decided that a few other public interests — for example, national security, justice or personal safety — override freedom of speech. There are no simple rules for determining when speech should be limited, but there are some general tests that help.Clear and Present Danger Will this act of speech create a dangerous situation? The First Amendment does not protect statements that are uttered to provoke violence or incite illegal action. Justice Holmes, speaking for the unanimous Supreme Court, stated, â€Å"The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the subs tantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent. Fighting Words Was something said face-to-face that would incite immediate violence? In  Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, the Supreme Court stated that the â€Å"English language has a number of words and expressions which by general consent [are] ‘fighting words’ when said without a disarming smile. †¦ Such words, as ordinary men know, are likely to cause a fight. The court determined that the New Hampshire statute in question â€Å"did no more than prohibit the face-to-face words plainly likely to cause a breach of the peace by the addressee, words whose speaking constitute a breach of the peace by the speaker — including ‘classical fighting words,’ words in current use less ‘classical’ but equally likely to cause violence, and other disorderly words, including profanity, obscenity and threats. † Jurisdictions may write statutes to punish verbal acts if the statutes are â⠂¬Å"carefully drawn so as not unduly to impair liberty of expression. Also see  What is the Fighting Words Doctrine? Libel and Slander Was the statement false, or put in a context that makes true statements misleading? You do not have a constitutional right to tell lies that damage or defame the reputation of a person or organization. Obscenity In June 1973 in  Miller v. California, the Supreme Court held in a 5-to-4 decision that obscene materials do not enjoy First Amendment protection. In  Miller v. California  (1973), the court refined the definition of â€Å"obscenity† established in  Roth v.United States  (1957). It also rejected the â€Å"utterly without redeeming social value† test of  Memoirs v. Massachusetts. In the three-part Miller test, three questions must receive affirmative responses for material to be considered â€Å"obscene†: 1. Would the average person, applying the contemporary community standards, viewing the work as a whole, find the work appeals to the prurient interest? 2. Does the work depict or describe sexual conduct in a patently offensive way? 3.Does the work taken as a whole lack serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value? One must distinguish â€Å"obscene† material, speech not protected by the First Amendment, from â€Å"indecent† material, speech protected for adults but not for children. The Supreme Court also ruled that â€Å"higher standards† may be established to protect minors from exposure to indecent material over the airwaves. In  FCC v. Pacifica Foundation  Ã‚  the court â€Å"recognized an interest in protecting minors from exposure to vulgar and offensive spoken language. Conflict with Other Legitimate Social or Governmental Interests Does the speech conflict with other compelling interests? For example, in times of war, there may be reasons to restrict First Amendment rights because of conflicts with national security. To ensure a fair tri al without disclosure of prejudicial information before or during a trial, a judge may place a â€Å"gag† order on participants in the trial, including attorneys. Placing prior restraint upon the media usually is unconstitutional. In  Nebraska Press Association v.Stuart  (1976),  the Supreme Court established three criteria that must be met before a judge can issue a gag order and restrain the media during a trial. Time, Place, and Manner These regulations of expression are content-neutral. A question to ask: Did the expression occur at a time or place, or did the speaker use a method of communicating, that interferes with a legitimate government interest? For example, distribution of information should not impede the flow of traffic or create excessive noise levels at certain times and in certain places.

Recommendations to Management Essay

Problem: Increase marketing of Chiropractic Services. My aim is to bring strategies that will increase the profitability of your practice, while at the same time improving patient satisfaction and results. In the process of achieving these aims, I also seek to improve the public’s image of chiropractic care. First Recommendation: To increase profits and public awareness. Rational: Increasing profit is the main goal in any business. To help you increase profits I wish to provide advice in the following areas, as suitable: †¢ debt reduction †¢ retirement planning †¢ overhead reduction †¢ investment strategies †¢ bankruptcy guidance †¢ collection assistance I feel that by using sound business advice in these areas you will improve your profits marginally. Together we will evaluate what products or services are making you money. We will decide whether other products or services should be promoted in addition or in place of current services. To cite a classic business planning question, â€Å"Are you making 80 percent of your profits from 20 percent of your offerings?† Are you wasting time on products and services that don’t return the favor by providing you with profits? Again, together we will find these answers. Why is this recommendation important now? I feel will that with the current economic situation, now is the time to work at increases your profits to its fullest. Now is not the time to let your business take a down fall. Priority ranking of the recommendation: The priority for profits is an important need in business. Proposal: I propose that within the next few years your Chiropractic office will increase profits by increasing services and lowering costs. This will be  achieved by first looking at business expenses. One seriously important area to examine is staffing. This is typically one of a company’s biggest expenses. You need to ask yourself â€Å"Did you make necessary cuts during the recession or are you still overstaffed? Are you getting your dollars’ worth from every employee?† Make necessary adjustments now. Next, we need to examine your other expenses as well. These expenses include expense accounts to seminars, up to magazine subscriptions. We will go over your entire profit and loss statements for this year. Remember to track everything. Scrutinize your cash flow, profits and trends every week. What’s more, figure out what your company’s important numbers are. Second Recommendation: Increase marketing and public awareness. Rational: I do not recommend door-to-door surveys or other unsuccessful marketing gimmicks. Nor do I support high patient fees or unwarranted patient visits. Instead, I want to custom-tailor solutions to your distinctive needs and goals. Some marketing tools that I recommend you use are questionnaires, patient fact sheets and health concerns hand outs. These items can be posted in your office, made into brochures, newsletters, newspaper articles, and reading material in specific areas of your office like reception area. Why is this recommendation important now? In order to make money and have a profit you must advertise. This advertising will increase the public awareness of your business and the services you offer. Priority ranking of the recommendation: I feel that this is one of the most important recommendations. Good marketing is the key to great business and success. Proposal: I propose that you step up your marketing by using public relations, Web marketing, email newsletters, and other targeted or large outreach. This will be a great way to market your business since you are a small company. How do these recommendations align with the mission statement and vision? Mission Statement: Rantoul Chiropractic Clinic is committed to finding the cause of your symptoms and treating it in the most effective manner possible. We are also committed to explaining your condition to you in a manner in which you will know and understand what the problem is and what it  will take to correct it and to keep it from reoccurring. Vision Statement: Our Vision is to embrace our community and strive together for optimal health through the journey of life. Promoting Excellence and Assuring Quality in Chiropractic Education. We understand the chiropractic profession and appreciate the services, workflow, and barriers that frustrate you and slow you down. References RJF Consulting. http://www.chiroevidence.com/RJFConsulting/mission-values.html